Sias International University

School of Foreign Languages

British History Course Syllabus

Fall Semester 2010

Instructor: Gary L. Todd, Ph.D.                                                                  Peter Hall Room #: A310

Email: LeeFoxx1949@gmail.com                                                               Phone #: 62607770

Office Hours: By Appointment

Course Objective: To learn the history of Great Britain; to develop an awareness, understanding and appreciation of the culture from which the English language derives.

Course Materials:  An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, textbook. Students should always come prepared to class with their book, notebook or course outline, and pen.

Classroom Rules: Please respect all your teachers and classmates, be honest, do your best in class, keep awake, and keep your classroom and country clean. Treat others the way you wish to be treated.

Course Grading Assessment:

Normal Score: (mid-term examination, participation, quizzes, etc.)                               40%

Final Examination (comprehensive)                                                                                             60%

Total Percentage                                                                                                                                   100%

As stated in official school policy, absences will be deducted directly from final grade.  So, come to class!

* Sept 22: No classes.  Oct 6 classes moved to Oct 9 (Sat).

Dr. Gary L. Todd, Ph.D., Professor of History

ž  Peter Hall Room A310

ž  Phone 62607770

ž  Office Hours by Appointment

ž   email: LeeFoxx1949@gmail.com

Lecture 2: Great Britain: The Country and the People; British Government

Britain: a tiny country with an enormous impact on the world

British Isles

Ireland

Great Britain or United Kingdom (officially United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland):

–        England

–        Scotland

–        Wales

–        Northern Ireland

Maritime Climate

• Influences on Britain’s climate:

–        Gulf Stream

–        North Atlantic Drift

–        Southwesterly prevailing winds

Early explorers followed ocean currents & prevailing winds

Results of ocean currents & prevailing winds

• Warm winters
• Cool summers
• Changeability
• Abundant rainfall
• Long twilight in summer due to high latitude

British People

• Great Britain is made up of successive waves of invaders and/or immigrants
• The earliest inhabitants of Britain are unknown
• Most likely they built Stonehenge 4000 years ago
• Celts (Scots, Irish, Welsh) invaded Britain c. 500 BC
• Romans invaded England in 1^st century
• Romans brought both Christianity & Roman pagan religion
• Romans built Hadrian’s Wall to keep out northern barbarians (Scots)
• They abandoned England when Rome was threatened in 5^th century
• Romans left behind many buildings, but little other lasting influence
• Angles, Saxons, Jutes (Germanic tribes) invaded & settled England during the 5-7^th centuries
• They made significant contributions to the early English language
• Old English language is Germanic
• Vikings (also called Norsemen or Danes) plundered England & settled in the 9-10^th century
• Vikings come from Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, & Sweden)
• Normans led by William the Conqueror conquered England in 1066
• Normans are descendants of Vikings who settled in Normandy in France
• Normans made French the language of government and the ruling class
• 1066 was the last successful invasion of England
• Immigrants from all over the British Empire (Indians, Arabs, Africans) settled in Britain in the 20^th century
• They brought many changes in language, culture, & religion
• Some have created serious problems of terrorism

Religion

• In the past England tried to enforce religious uniformity
• Members of other religions or sects were often persecuted or even killed
• Today religious freedom in Britain is guaranteed by law
• Established (official) church: Church of England (or Anglican Church)
• Protestant
• Founded in 16^th century when King Henry VIII left the Roman Catholic Church
• Head of Anglican Church: Archbishop of Canterbury
• Canterbury Cathedral: Home of Archbishop of Canterbury
• York Minster Cathedral: Home of #2 Anglican Archbishop

Scotland

• Established church: Church of Scotland
• Protestant
• Presbyterian (a specific type of Protestant church ruled by elders rather than by a single head)
• Founded by Protestant Reformer John Knox in 16^th century

Ireland

• Roman Catholic Church
• Head of Catholic Church: the Pope in Rome

Free Churches of Britain

• Members of Free Churches were formerly called dissenters or nonconformists
• Principal Free Churches:

–        Methodist

–        Baptist

–        Quaker (Society of Friends)

–        Salvation Army

Language of Britain

• English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages
• It evolved in three stages
• First stage: Old English (Anglo-Saxon or Germanic)
• 5-12th centuries
• Second stage: Middle English (Norman French influence)
• 12-15^th centuries
• 1400: Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales
• Modern English: 15^th century to the present
• Major influences:
  • William Shakespeare (late 1500s-early 1600s)
  • 1611 King James Bible
  • 1755 Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary
  • British Empire & spread of English: 19^th & 20^th centuries

Government

• Britain today is a Constitutional Monarchy
• King or queen reigns but does not rule
• Cabinet of government officials called ministers actually rule
• The system of government has evolved for over 1000 years
• 9^th century: the king had absolute power
• 12^th century: law courts established
• 1215, King John signed Magna Carta granting limited rights to nobility
• Magna Carta is the foundation of constitutional government
• 13^th century: Montfort Parliament major step in evolution of that body
• 17^th century civil war, Parliament vs. King Charles I, resulted in limited constitutional monarchy
• First political parties born shortly afterward
• King lost importance; ministers gained
• 19^th century: growth of government responsible to the people
• Representative government

Parliament Today

• Prime Minister: leader of majority party
• Cabinet: appointed by Prime Minister (heads of executive departments)

House of Lords

• Upper house of Parliament
• About 1170 members – none elected
• About 800 hereditary nobility, 2 Anglican archbishops, & 24 Anglican bishops
• About 20 law lords appointed for life to handle legal matters
• Remainder are life peers given rank of baron in honor of some accomplishment – title & seat in Lords dies with them
• Presiding officer: Lord Chancellor
• Limited Veto power: can delay but not defeat bill passed by Commons
• Highest court of appeal
• Moral influence, but little real power

House of Commons

• Britain’s real governing body: makes laws
• Representative assembly
• Elected by people in general elections
• Based on population
• Almost all British citizens age 18 or over may vote except peers & mentally ill
• Currently 650 seats
• Power of the purse
• Each member represents a voting district called a constituency
• Members need not reside in their constituency
• General election must be held at least every 5 years
• An election may be called at any time

Civil Service

• Civil Servants run government departments
• Selected by impartial examinations
• Not based on party membership

Local Government

• 3 levels of government:

–        Central government

–        County government

–        District government

–        1997: Scottish Parliament

–        1997: Welsh Assembly

British Monarchy

• Over 1000 years old
• Queen can trace ancestry to England’s earliest kings in 800’s
• Throne passes from king or queen to oldest son (Prince of Wales)
• Throne passes to oldest daughter if no son
• Queen Elizabeth II, 1952-present
• King or Queen has no real power
• Ceremonial functions only
• English people overwhelmingly love their monarchs
• Monarchy great asset to tourist industry
• Windsor Castle: Main residence of Queen Elizabeth II
• Buckingham Palace: Queen’s Residence in London

Lecture 3: Politics and Law; Economy, Culture, and Social Life

British Politics

• Two party system:
  • Conservative Party (formerly Tory Party)
  • Labour Party (formerly Whig Party)

• Minor parties exist but are unimportant

Conservative Party

• Formerly Tory Party
• Basic beliefs:
  • Pragmatism
  • Free enterprise
  • Privatization of business & industry
  • Individualism
• Better educated
• Middle & upper middle class
• Greatest modern leader: Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1979-1991

Labour Party

• Formerly Whig Party
• Basic beliefs:
  • Nationalization of key industries
  • Welfare state
  • Rejection of class struggle
• Traditional membership:
  • Unionists, liberals, socialists, Fabians
  • Working-class & poor
• 1995: Labour Party abandoned socialism
• Few significant differences today between Conservatives & Labour
• Current Labour Party Prime Minister Gordon Brown (recently replaced Tony Blair)

Elections

• Nationwide general elections for seats in Parliament
• 650 electoral districts called constituencies
• MPs need not reside in their constituencies
• Age 18 & over to vote
• General elections every 5 years
• Prime Minister may call for early elections
• Independent candidates may run
• Media & campaigning important for gaining votes
• “Safe seats” for each party
• Majority party selects Prime Minister

British Law

• Sources of law:
  • 1. Common Law (centuries of experience & precedents)
  • 2. Acts of Parliament
  • 3. European Union law

Liberty and Justice

• Magna Carta, 1215, Great Charter of English liberty
• British and Americans both consider the Magna Carta the foundation of their freedoms and their justice system
• Important Principles of British & American law & justice:
  • Due process of law
  • Individual rights
  • Trial by jury
  • Writ of habeas corpus: no arbitrary imprisonment
• Levels of law courts:
  • Magistrates’ courts
  • County courts
  • Supreme Court
  • House of Lords: Final court of appeals

Jury Trial: a fundamental right

• Trial by jury of peers (equals; usually 12)
• Unanimous verdict or hung jury
• Rules of evidence: all evidence must be legally obtained

British Economics

• Capitalist, Supply Side, or Free Market System
• Theoretical basis: Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, 1776
• Underlying principle of capitalism: Entrepreneurs pursuing self-interest benefit everyone
• Example: Bill Gates & Microsoft

Principles of Capitalism

• Economic freedom
• Individualism
• Equality
• Competition
• Role of government: Laissez-faire
• “Hands off the economy”

Abuses of Capitalism

• Greed
• Exploitation
• Child labor
• Oppressive working conditions
• Low wages
• Dishonesty in marketing

Personal Opinion

• Deng Xiaoping understood economics better
• But Mao Zedong was correct when he said, “Serve the People”
• Capitalism must be tempered with compassion
• Helping others is always more important than getting rich
• Getting rich is all right, but use your riches to help others

Public vs. Private Sector

• Labour Party policies 1946-1979:
  • State-owned enterprises – but they proved to be very inefficient
  • Welfare state – led to very high taxes
  • British economy suffered greatly under Labour economic policies

Conservative Party Reforms

• Began in 1979 under Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
• Denationalization (or privatization) of key industries
• Abandonment of socialistic policies
• Private sector more efficient but more abuses

Industry in Britain

• Industrial Revolution began c. 1750
• New inventions contribute:
  • Spinning & weaving machines
  • Farm machinery
  • Steam engine
• Industrial Revolution made England the greatest world power of 19^th century
• Deposits of iron & coal promoted great steelmaking industry
• Cheap American cotton & domestic wool promoted textile industry

British Manufacturing Industry Principal Products

• Clothing & textiles
• Foods & beverages
• Machinery & metal goods
• Motor vehicles & ships
• Glass & glassware
• Chemicals
• Pharmaceuticals
• Electrical goods & electronics
• Printing & publishing
• British economy largely post-industrial
• Offshore oil fields in North Sea – greatest oil resources in Europe
• Fishing still important
• Growth of service industry & high tech
• Service industry accounts for more than half of GDP and employs over 2/3 of all workers
• Invention of railways, 1820s
• Shipping & merchant marine – Britain is an island nation
• Concorde & Airbus
• Royal Mail, first post office, 1635
• Growth of high tech industry today
• Importer of raw materials
• Exporter of finished goods

Agriculture

• Very intensive & highly productive
• ¼ of farmland devoted to crops:
  • Grain (wheat, barley, oats, rye)
  • Potatoes
  • Sugar beets
• 3/4 of farmland for grazing
  • Cattle for beef & dairy
  • Dairy industry: milk & cheese important to British diet
  • Sheep-farming supplies woolen industry
  • Pigs
  • Poultry & eggs
• Government policies to raise farm prices:
  • Land taken out of production
  • Government subsidies
  • Production quotas (maximum allowed)
• Result is high taxes & higher prices for consumers
• Government policies are very controversial

“British Disease”

• Labour Party Socialist policies:
  • State-owned industries inefficient
  • Welfare state very expensive
  • Productive people heavily taxed to pay for non-productive people
  • British economy unable to compete in world market

Margaret Thatcher Reforms

• Supply-side theory: free markets rather than government control
• Popular capitalism: give workers a share in the company that employs them
• Britain, America, & China all faced similar economic hardships in the 1970s
• All 3 countries adopted similar free market solutions:
  • Deng Xiaoping 1978 reforms
  • Margaret Thatcher 1979-1991
  • Ronald Reagan 1981-1989
  • Free market reforms proved very successful in all three countries

British Cities

• Britain is highly urbanized
• London: more than 11% total population; capital of England & the United Kingdom
• Edinburgh: capital of Scotland
• Belfast: capital of Northern Ireland
• Cardiff: capital of Wales
• Dublin: capital of Ireland (not in UK)

British Society

• Reputation for decency & fair play
• Gentleman ideal (contrast to America’s cowboy ideal)
• Pioneer in democracy
• Primogeniture: eldest son inherits nearly everything; leads to small nobility class
• High social mobility
• Rejection of class struggle
• Large middle class
• Influence of Christianity
• Influence of Queen Victoria: personal morality & devotion to family
• Nuclear family
• Families patriarchal
• Strict monogamy
• Liberation of women
• Complete independence of children at 18
• Great social problem today: assimilation of foreign minorities
• Example: recent Muslim terrorism

Great British Scientists

• Modern scientific research method: Francis Bacon, 16^th century
• Sir Isaac Newton: laws of motion & gravity
• Michael Faraday: electric generator
• Charles Darwin: theory of evolution, 1859

British Education

• Literacy rate over 99%
• 2-tier system of government & private schools
• Premier British Universities: Oxford & Cambridge

Lecture 4: Earliest Inhabitants and Roman Occupation

Earliest Britons are unknown

• No one knows when first people arrived in England
• From c. 8000 to 3000 BC people from Spain & France settled on hilltops in southern England
• They made tools of flint, grew crops, made pottery, and raised cattle & sheep
• C. 2000 BC: people from Rhine & Danube River regions of Europe migrated to England
• They wove cloth, mined tin, & made bronze tools
• They also built stone monuments: Stonehenge, on Plain of Salisbury
• Celts began crossing the English Channel c. 500 BC
• They were warlike tribal people from Europe
• Gaels were the earliest invading Celtic tribe
• They settled in west & north of Great Britain
• Britons (or Brythons) were second wave of Celtic invaders
• They occupied most of today’s England & Wales
• Worshiped nature gods & practiced human sacrifice
• Priests were called Druids
• Celts used iron, mined tin, & made woolen cloth
• They traded with Gauls in France and Celtic tribes in Ireland
• Celts are ancestors of Scots, Irish, & Welsh
• Gaelic & Welsh languages are Celtic

Roman conquest

• Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (France) in 55 BC and crossed English Channel with small force to explore Britain
• Returned next year with army
• Defeated some Celts & then returned to Rome
• Julius Caesar did not follow up his victory
• Emperor Claudius invaded Britannia in 43 AD & defeated Celts
• Romans put down major revolt by Iceni tribe, 61 AD
• Completed conquest of England by 80s AD
• Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean
• Rome controlled most of Europe, including much of Britain
• The Roman Empire was contemporary with Han China
• Hadrian’s Wall built in 120s AD to keep out wild Scots & Picts from North
• Hadrian’s Wall separated England from Scotland
• Another wall in the west protected England from the Celtic Welsh
• Roman roads connected much of England
• Roman baths were centers of social & political life
• Romans built a fort on the banks of the Thames River
• They named it Londinium
• Londinium became London
• Romans left in 410 AD when Rome was threatened by barbarians
• Roman influence was limited & short-lived
• England was now at mercy of new foreign invaders
• Anglo-Saxons invaded England after the Romans left

King Arthur

• Semi-legendary king
• C. 5^th or 6^th century
• Possible Roman officer or son of Roman officer
• Legends may be based on local chieftain who united Britons against Anglo-Saxon invaders
• Arthur fought with mighty sword named “Excalibur”
• Arthur was the ideal king
• Arthur founded the Knights of the Round Table

Early Christianity

• Traditionally brought to Britain by Joseph of Arimathea in 1^st century
• Celtic communities developed a strong Christian tradition
• During next few centuries the Bishop of Rome gained more power & became Pope (“Papa”) or supreme leader of Western Christendom
• Celtic Christians did not recognize Pope’s authority
• This will lead to later conflict

England after the Romans left

• Almost no written records for this period
• Much warfare and confusion
• Cities mostly abandoned
• Civilization gradually died out
• Christianity nearly disappeared
• Latin and Celtic languages ceased – only a few words remained a permanent part of the language of England
• Only roads, walls, bridges, and buildings remained
• Anglo-Saxon invaders will soon transform Britain

Lecture 5: Anglo-Saxon England: Beginnings of English Society, 5^th – 11^th Centuries

Anglo-Saxon invasion & conquest of England

• Angles, Saxons, Jutes from Germany
• 5^th – 7^th centuries
• Fierce warriors
• Pagans worshiped Germanic deities
• England means “Angle Land”

Anglo-Saxon influence on English language

• Old English is Anglo-Saxon
• Place names:
• Sussex (south Saxon)
• Wessex (west Saxon)
• Essex (east Saxon)
• East Anglia, Mercia, & Northumbria
• Hundreds of towns throughout England
• Tiu
• God of war
• Tuesday honors Tiu
• Woden (Odin)
• King of heaven
• Wednesday honors Woden
• Thor
• God of storms
• Thursday is “Thor’s Day”
• Freya
• Goddess of peace
• “Freya’s Day” is Friday

Anglo-Saxon Words (gh, ch, & ght endings)

• Cough, Enough, Tough, Rough, Laugh
• Teach, Reach, Fight, Right, Sight

Anglo-Saxons were warlike

Anglo-Saxon gods were warlike

Pagan Anglo-Saxons soon converted to Christianity

Reintroduction of Christianity

• 597 – Pope in Rome sent Augustine to Canterbury
• Converted Ethelbert, King of Jutes & nobles
• Established convents & monasteries
• Monks convert common people
• Roman missionaries convert much of southern England
• Celtic missionaries convert northern tribes, Picts & Scots
• Roman missionaries: Pope supreme
• Celtic Christians: Local church supreme

Synod of Whitby, 664 AD

• Synod of Whitby debated the differences between Roman & Celtic Christians
• Roman view prevailed – England became officially Roman Catholic
• Celtic Christians continued from monastery on island of Iona
• Relations between Iona & Canterbury remained harmonious

Christian Influence on Anglo-Saxon Poetry

• Caedmon: author of earliest datable English poetry, 730s AD
• Caedmon was a peasant who guarded cattle of abbey of Whitby
• One night he saw a vision of a man who told him to sing of the Creation
• He composed this poem in his sleep and repeated it the next morning

Caedmon’s Poem in Old English (Anglo-Saxon)

• Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes uard,
• metudaes maecti end his modgidanc,
• uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes,
• eci dryctin, or astelidae;
• he aerist scop aelda barnum
• heben til hrofe, haleg scepen.
• Tha middungeard moncynnaes uard,
• eci dryctin, aefter tiadae
• firum foldu, frea allmectig.

Caedmon’s Poem in Modern English

• Now we must praise the guardian of the heavenly kingdom,
• the powers of the Creator and his thoughts, the works of the Father of glory,
• as he, the eternal Lord,
• appointed the beginning of every wondrous thing;
• He, the holy Lord, the Guardian of mankind,
• first created for the children of men the heaven as a roof.
• Then the eternal Lord, Ruler Almighty,
• afterwards adorned the world, the earth, for men.

Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms

• German tribes formed separate nations
• Saxons occupied southern England
• Saxons became East Saxons, Middle Saxons, South Saxons, & West Saxons
• Angles lived in central, N. & E. England
• Angles formed Mercia, East Anglia, & Northumbria
• Tribes slowly formed 7 separate kingdoms called Heptarchy: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, & Wessex
• From c. 500-800 AD Northumbria, Mercia, & Wessex controlled other 6 in turn
• King Egbert of Wessex: last king to control Heptarchy – often considered first king of England
• Britons were most likely enslaved
• The term Briton is often synonymous with slave
• By 700 AD pagan Anglo-Saxons had converted to Christianity
• Monasteries became centers of religion, scholarship & education
• They had large libraries and schools
• Religion, education, and the arts flourished in this time

Classes of society

• Thanes or nobles
• Churls (ordinary free men)
• Slaves
  • Many Britons were enslaved
  • Also war captives & criminals
  • Sometimes people sold children (or themselves) into slavery to pay debts
  • Christianity lessened harshness of slavery

Duty to one’s lord

• Lords provided weapons, horses, & feasting for their retainers
• Retainers were prepared to die to protect their lord
• Loyalty to one’s lord was the Anglo-Saxon’s highest honor

Anglo-Saxon (English) law

• Different classes had different standards
• Penalty for killing a man varied with his class or social status
• Usually it involved payment to the man’s kin, but it could involve killing the killer
• If his social rank allowed, an accused might swear an oath of innocence
• Sometimes the oath of an accused was not allowed
• Then he would undergo “trial by ordeal,” or the Judgment of God
• The Church handled the ordeals
• An ordeal began with a 3-day fast
• The accused was admonished to confess his guilt, before taking Catholic mass

Ordeal by hot water

• Accused must remove a stone from a pot of boiling water (or oil)
• The hand was then bound up
• If the wound healed after 3 days without festering, accused was cleared of charge
• If not, then he was declared guilty
• But his punishment was still less than if he had been caught in the act

Ordeal by hot iron

• Accused must carry one pound of hot iron for 9 feet (3 meters)
• Hand was examined after 3 days
• For a serious charge, weight of iron was increased to 3 pounds
• For hot water ordeal, accused must plunge arm to the elbow instead of wrist
• Trial by Combat probably pre-dates English law

Vikings (Danes) invaded England in 9^th & 10^th centuries

Vikings (Danes) easily conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, except Wessex

• Vikings destroyed the monasteries and schools
• Danes began to settle in England
• Vikings added Danish elements to English language
• Danes controlled nearly half of England
• Viking/Danish England was called the Danelaw

King Alfred the Great, 849-899

King Alfred built the first English navy

• Alfred was a devout Christian
• He defeated the Danes in 886, forced them to withdraw to NE third of England, and converted many to Christianity
• Established schools & repaired monasteries
• Invited scholars to come to England
• Learned to read and write Latin & English
• Translated Scriptures into language of his people

Death of Alfred, 899 AD, and Rise of the Danes

• During 100 years after Alfred’s death, Danes gradually expanded Danelaw
• 1016 AD: Canute (brother of King of Denmark) defeated King Ethelred II (Ethelred the “Unready”) of Wessex and became ruler of England

King Canute, 1016-1035

• King of England, Denmark & Norway
• Wise & just ruler
• Danes & Anglo-Saxons share power
• Forced Scots to submit

King Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066

• Canute succeeded by 2 sons who were unable to continue his kingdom
• Edward restored Anglo-Saxon rule
• Appointed many Normans to top jobs
• Called “Confessor” because of his devout Christian faith
• Built first church on what is now site of Westminster Abbey in London
• Death led to power struggle

Norman Invasion 1066

• Vikings=Northmen=Norsemen=Normans
• Settled France early 900s
• English nobles chose Harold, Earl of Wessex, as king
• Norman French relative, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed Edward had promised him the throne
• King Harold took throne of England & defeated another rival named Harold
• His victorious army was weakened
• William, Duke of Normandy, saw an opportunity
• Battle of Hastings, October, 1066
• Harold’s English army meets William’s Norman French army
• Harold is killed at Hastings
• Norman army victorious
• On Christmas day, 1066, William the Conqueror crowned first Anglo-Norman king of England
• William established strong central government
• Appointed Normans to top positions
• Divided conquered land among Normans
• Forced most Anglo-Saxons into serfdom
• William built many cathedrals & castles like Tower of London
• Beginnings of English Feudalism
• William replaced English bishops with Normans
• King became head of bishops
• King William ordered a survey of land & property in England in 1085
• Used it to set taxes & divide large estates among his followers
• “Domesday Book”
• Anglo-Saxons mostly became serfs at first
• Kept their own language & many of their customs
• 2 languages in England until c. 1400
• Oppression, then intermingling
• Normans & Anglo-Saxons gradually became united people

Lecture 6: Norman England, 1066-1307

William the Conqueror

• First Norman king of England, 1066-1087
• Ended Anglo-Saxon rule by defeating King Harold at Battle of Hastings, 1066
• William ruled autocratically – brought church & barons under his personal control
• Replaced English bishops with Normans
• Distributed land to reward his followers
• Built castles throughout England to control hostile population
• Beginnings of English Feudalism
• William had no permanent residence
• He travelled around England to survey his domain and demonstrate his power
• He held court & a major festival 3 times a year in 3 different towns
• Normans were a foreign army of occupation
• They built many castles to protect themselves and control the population
• King William ordered a survey of land & property in England in 1085
• He used it to set taxes & divide large estates among his followers
• Anglo-Saxon nobility mostly killed or fled
• Anglo-Saxon commoners mostly became serfs
• Kept their own language & many of their customs
• 3 languages in England: French (spoken by nobility), Old English/Anglo-Saxon (commoners), Latin (scholars & church)
• Some oppression, then intermingling
• Normans & Anglo-Saxons gradually became united people

William II, 1087-1100

• William the Conqueror succeeded by 2 sons
• William II was illiterate, brutal, & an excellent warrior & hunter
• His nobles revolted in 1088 & he invaded Scotland in 1097
• Killed by an arrow while hunting
• Clergy refused him a church funeral

Henry I, 1100-1135

• Youngest son of William the Conqueror
• Suppressed serious revolt of barons, then ruled land in peace for over 30 years
• Helped unite Saxons & Normans
• Wise & just ruler

King Stephen, Empress Maud, & the period of anarchy, 1135-53

Empress Matilda (Maud)

• Daughter of Henry I
• Henry wanted her to succeed him
• Nephew Stephen took throne instead
• Maud’s attempt to seize throne led to civil war

King Stephen, 1135-1153

• “Of outstanding skill in arms, but in other things almost an idiot, except that he was more inclined towards evil” – contemporary view
• “…by his good nature and by the way he jested and enjoyed himself even in the company of his inferiors, Stephen earned an affection that can hardly be imagined.”
• “Basically he was a kind and amiable man whose friends would not abandon him when he was in trouble.”
• Stephen’s reign full of strife – called “the Anarchy”
• Stephen & Maud both gave away land & titles to buy support
• Stephen finally forced to recognize son of Maud as his successor

King Henry II, 1154-1189

• Grandson of Henry I & son of Maud (Matilda)
• Father was Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou
• Henry II founded Plantagenet Dynasty
• Henry & successors sometimes called Angevins (from Anjou, France)
• Married Eleanor of Aquitaine, most famous woman of the age
• Acquired western France through marriage to Eleanor
• Also claimed Scotland, Wales, & eastern Ireland
• Continued grandfather’s policy of limiting power of nobles & centralizing his power
• Made Anglo-Saxon common law supreme law of land – based on precedent decisions of circuit courts
• Introduced jury system to replace trial by ordeal or battle
• Tried to force Roman Catholic Church to submit to his authority
• 1162 made Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury
• Power struggle between king & church
• Becket murdered by 4 of Henry’s noble
• Becket made saint
• English begin pilgrimages to his tomb
• King does public penance

Geoffrey Chaucer, c.1340-1400

• Greatest English poet of middle ages
• Collected stories told by pilgrims on way to shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury
• Geoffrey Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, 1400
• Written in Middle English
• Major  influence on evolution of English language

Oxford was an important crossroads since Roman times

Oxford University began there in 12^th century

Cambridge was the site of a second medieval university

Sons of Henry II

• In his later years, Henry’s sons often rebelled against him
• Two of them became the next 2 kings
• Statue of King Richard I, the “Lion-Hearted”

Richard I, 1189-1199, spent most of his reign overseas

King Richard Coeur de Leon (“Lion-Hearted”) led crusade to capture Jerusalem

• Richard captured Acre and tried to recapture Jerusalem from the Moslems
• He spent only six months of his reign in England and did little for the good of England
• Kidnapped by Austrian duke on way home from crusade
• Held as prisoner & released for ransom
• Fought war with France & killed during siege of a French castle, 1199

King John, 1199-1216

• Became king on death of brother Richard I
• Tyrannical & greedy – generally viewed as one of England’s worst kings
• Lost nearly all of England’s holdings in France in 1205
• Legend of Robin Hood dates to reign of King John
• Barons revolt & force John to sign Magna Carta, 1215

Magna Carta (Great Charter)

• 1. King observes rights of barons; barons observe rights of their vassals
• 2. No taxes without consent of Great Council; farmers & merchants protected from too harsh fines
• 3.  Right to jury trial
• 4. Merchants can move freely
• Protects only freemen (12% of population)
• Later extended to serfs
• Social order now regulated by law – begins to end feudal despotism

King Henry III, 1216-1272

• Eldest son of King John
• Became king at age 9 but did not rule until 1227
• Fickle tyrant who surrounded himself with foreign influences
• Taxed & robbed the people
• Obeyed Pope at expense of his people
• Foolish policies alienated most people

Simon De Montfort

• King’s brother-in-law
• Defender of Magna Carta
• Led rebellion of barons – defeated king
• Reformed Great Council
• 1265 established model English parliament
• Invited commoners for first time
• House of Lords most important at first
• Advice & petitions only at first
• Major step in evolution of parliamentary government

King Edward I, 1272-1307

• Son & successor of Henry III
• Conquered Wales, 1277-1283
• Eldest son & heir given title Prince of Wales
• Built many castles along Welsh border
• Devoted most of his reign to conquering Scotland
• Edward I invaded Scotland 1296
• William Wallace (Braveheart) opposed him
• Wallace known for great strength & courage

William Wallace

• Scottish national hero made famous by movie “Braveheart”
• Defeated English at Stirling Bridge
• Edward I returned with a great English army which defeated Scots at Falkirk
• Wallace continued fight for Scottish freedom for 7 years
• He led guerrilla forces operating in Scottish highlands
• English captured Wallace & executed him for treason

Robert the Bruce

• Claimed throne of Scotland
• Led army against Edward II (son of Edward I)

Bannockburn, 1314

• Great Scottish victory against English army
• Scots led by Robert the Bruce
• Preserved Scottish independence for many more years

Lecture 7: England in the late middle ages

King Edward II, 1307-1327

• Son of Edward I
• Incompetent ruler
• Loss at Bannockburn guaranteed Scottish independence
• Forced by Parliament to abdicate, 1327
• Brutally murdered shortly afterward

King Edward III, 1327-1377

• Son of Edward II
• Claimed throne of France, 1337
• Landed army in Normandy to begin Hundred Years’ War

Hundred Years’ War 1337-1453

• English loss of Normandy in 1204 basic cause of war
• French support of Scots also cause
• War lasted during reigns of 5 English & 5 French kings
• Great English victories at first

Edward, the Black Prince

• Son of King Edward III
• Father of King Richard II
• Wore black armor
• Commanded wing of army at Crecy at age 16
• Defeated French army at Poitiers & captured French king

Battle of Crecy, 1346

• France had 3 times the wealth, supplies, & manpower of English
• France had many knights
• English fought mainly with archers & infantry
• Great English victory

Black Death (Bubonic Plague)

• 1348-1349 in England
• Wiped out a third to half the population
• Deaths from plague created labor shortage
• Peasants demanded better wages & working conditions
• Government responded with reactionary laws to preserve serfdom
• Widespread peasant unrest

Richard II, 1377-1399

• Son of Edward, the Black Prince
• King at age 10
• John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster) real ruler at first
• High taxes led to peasant rebellion

Peasants’ Revolt (Wat Tyler’s Rebellion), 1381

• Peasants object to forced labor & heavy taxes
• New tax touched off revolt
• Blacksmith Wat Tyler led protest movement
• Riots & violence broke out all over England
• Tyler led 100,000 peasants who marched on London & demanded to see king
• 14-year old king faced mob alone (royal advisors had deserted him)
• King listened to peasants’ demands
• Peasants demanded end to serfdom, low rents on land, & end of oppressive labor laws
• King agreed to demands
• Most peasants went home
• Tyler remained with 30,000 supporters to gain further concessions
• Mayor of London murders Wat Tyler
• Troops come to support of king & drive away rebels
• Promises of king were ignored
• Oppression of peasants continued
• But serfdom slowly begins to die out after revolt
• Labor shortage from Black Death & peasant revolt weakens feudalism
• New class of yeoman (free) farmers begins to emerge
• Capitalism slowly begins to emerge

John Wycliffe & the Lollards

• Oxford professor
• Challenged corruption & some beliefs of Roman Catholic church
• Movement diverse and increasingly radical
• Lollards preached equality of men before God & communal ownership of all things
• Opposed tyranny, especially in the church
• Beginnings of democratic ideas & practices
• Priesthood of all believers
• Wycliffe produced first English translation of Bible
• Lollards promoted many beliefs & practices taken up later in the Protestant Reformation

King Henry IV, 1399-1413

• King Richard II seized estates of his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke (John of Gaunt’s son)
• Bolingbroke raised army & forced Richard from throne
• Became King Henry IV
• Richard died in prison – probably murdered
• Henry IV , first ruler of House of Lancaster (one branch of Plantagenet family)
• Parliament elected him king
• Henry admitted that Parliament had right to choose king
• Important increase in power of Parliament
• Revolts & conspiracies dominate first 8 years of reign
• Encouraged towns & trade to develop
• Persecuted Lollards

King Henry V, 1413-1422

• Eldest son of Henry IV
• Deeply religious (Catholic)
• Persecuted Lollards
• Renewed Hundred Years’ War with France
• Won great victory at Agincourt, 1415
• Very popular warrior king
• Early death saved him from disastrous consequences of war
• French soldiers bragged on eve of battle
• Henry & his men prayed
• French army greatly outnumbered English at Agincourt
• Another triumph for the English longbow
• Over 7000 French killed including many great nobles
• About 500 English killed
• Agincourt led to Treaty of Troyes: Henry declared heir to French crown
• Henry married daughter of French king, but died 2 years later
• Early English victories were won by archers & infantry with long pikes
• Hundred Years’ War led to evolution of artillery
• Gunpowder changes nature of warfare

King Henry VI, 1422-1461

• Last English king of House of Lancaster
• Held thrones of both England & France when he was 1 year old
• Pious & gentle ruler, but weak, with attacks of insanity

Joan of Arc

• French peasant girl who claimed saints spoke to her
• Led French army to rescue Orleans from English, 1429
• Escorted French king to coronation at Reims Cathedral
• National heroine
• Captured by Burgundians & turned over to English
• Convicted of witchcraft & burned at the stake
• Martyrdom inspired French peasants to victory
• But English army already exhausted & country nearly bankrupt

Results of War

• English kings lost nearly all their French possessions
• English kings now free to focus on England
• English language now spoken by all classes in England
• England exhausted, bankrupt, & on eve of civil war

Wars of the Roses, 1455-1485

• English nobles took advantage of weakness of Henry VI & misgoverned England in their own selfish interests
• Popular uprising in 1450 further divided & weakened England
• 2 rival branches of Plantagenet family:
• House of Lancaster (symbol of Red Rose): ruled since 1399
• House of York (symbol of White Rose): challenged rule of Henry VI
• Wars mostly between “rival gangs of nobles”
• Common people largely indifferent
• Reduced noble class  through death in war & executions
• Hastened end of feudalism
• Strengthened central government & power of king

King Edward IV, 1461-1470, 1471-1483

• Leader of House of York
• Took throne from Henry VI after Battle of Towton, 1461
• Fled to Holland when rival noble supported Henry, 1470-71
• Returned with army & recovered throne
• Imprisoned Henry & probably had him murdered

King Edward V, 1483

• Son of Edward IV
• Became king at age 12
• Uncle Richard made protector, but had Edward & brother imprisoned when mother’s family tried to seize power
• Richard probably murdered Edward & brother

King Richard III, 1483-1485

• Brother of Edward IV
• Last Plantagenet king
• Reign brought on revolt that ended Wars of the Roses
• Governed well, but people tired of civil disturbances
• Lancastrian nobles plotted against him

Henry Tudor

• Earl of Richmond of House of Lancaster
• Exiled in France
• Invaded England
• Won Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485
• King Richard killed in battle
• End of Wars of Roses
• Henry Tudor became King Henry VII
• Descended from House of Lancaster
• Married daughter of Edward IV, uniting Houses of Lancaster & York
• Tudor family replaced Plantagenet family
• Tudors rule England next 118 years

End of the Middle Ages

• Many historians consider end of Wars of Roses as the end of Middle Ages & beginning of modern world history in England
• But Henry VII changed very little
• His son Henry VIII also changed very little during his first 20 years as king
• Both Henrys strengthened the power of the king
• But the Medieval Roman Catholic church still dominated religious beliefs
• Middle Ages really didn’t end until the Renaissance & especially the Protestant Reformation
• This will take place in England mostly in the 1530s

Lecture 8: Tudor England

Tudor Monarchy 1485-1603

• 1485 – Wars of the Roses ends
• Henry VII, first king of House of Tudor
• Sometimes considered the end of Middle Ages & beginning of Modern History
• But Henry VII changed very little
• The great changes took place under his descendants

King Henry VII, 1485-1509

• Killed Richard III at Battle of Bosworth Field to end Wars of Roses
• Married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV, uniting Houses of Lancaster & York
• Tough, cold, shrewd, & sly
• Kept nobles in fear by increasing political power of wealthy middle classes
• Taxed common people heavily
• Eliminated rivals to throne
• Ended several revolts & conspiracies
• Sent first English explorers to N. America
• Arranged marriage between oldest son Arthur & Catherine of Aragon (Spain)
• Secured young widow Catherine & her dowry for second son Henry
• Arranged marriage between daughter Margaret & James IV of Scotland
• “Best businessman to sit on English throne” – left greatest fortune ever

Renaissance

• Began in 14^th century Italy
• Renaissance means “rebirth”
• “Rebirth” of Classical (ancient Greek & Roman) learning, art, architecture, philosophy, languages
• Renaissance coincided with Western invention of printing
• Made books cheap & spreads learning

Leonardo Da Vinci, 1452-1519

• Genius & leading figure of Renaissance
• One of greatest artists of Western world
• Great inventor, scientist, thinker
• Designed many scientific inventions which were centuries ahead of their time
• Kept notebook with writing which can be read only with a mirror

Great Renaissance artist Michelangelo: Sistine Chapel

• Raphael was another great artist of Italian Renaissance (or High Renaissance)
• Directed construction of St. Peter’s Church in Rome
• Paintings influenced artists up to early 1900s

Erasmus

• Dutch priest & scholar
• Tried to reform church
• Published Greek New Testament, 1516, which was of great value for Protestant Reformation

Renaissance

• Philosophy of Humanism emphasized study of humanities
• Great impact on literature & arts
• Study of ancient writings (like Bible) in original languages
• Paved way for Protestant Reformation

Protestant Reformation

• Greatest intellectual movement in Western history
• Fought corruption of Roman Catholic Church
• Wanted to end power of pope & priests
• Gave people Bible in their own language
• Taught priesthood of all believers

Martin Luther, 1483-1546: Leader of Protestant Reformation

• Studied law
• Became priest after powerful conversion experience
• Deeply troubled by his own sin
• Discovered Doctrine of Grace in Bible
• Luther offered to debate 95 theses with other priests, 1517
• Luther defends himself at Diet of Worms
• Luther condemned at Diet of Worms
• Luther “kidnapped” on way home from Diet
• Luther held captive at Wartburg Castle for his own protection
• Luther became matchmaker for liberated nuns
• One nun refused two matches Luther made
• So Luther married her “to spite the devil and the pope”
• Northern European states followed Reformation
• France, Spain, Italy, S. Germany remained Roman Catholic

Henry VIII, 1509-1547

• Devout Roman Catholic & amateur theologian
• Opposed Luther & Protestant Reformation
• Henry wrote pamphlet condemning Luther
• Pope gave King Henry title “Defender of the Faith”
• Henry dedicated his pamphlet to the Pope
• Spent his father’s wealth on foreign wars
• Built navy
• Henry’s Queen was Catherine of Aragon, a Spanish Roman Catholic
• Catherine failed to produce son in 19 years of marriage
• Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a Protestant
• Henry wanted to divorce Catherine
• Only Pope can grant Henry’s divorce
• But Pope cannot afford to offend Spain
• Pope refused divorce
• Growing Protestant sentiment in England
• Parliament passed 2 acts, 1534
• Declared Pope had no authority in England
• Act of Supremacy:  King (not Pope) head of the church
• Church under new leadership, but most Roman Catholic ideas and practices remain
• Henry had expanded the power of king
• He spent his father’s wealth on war
• As head of Church, he disbanded the monasteries & took over their land
• Henry raised much money selling monastery land, mostly to rising middle class
• Major social revolution

Six wives of Henry VIII

• Anne Boleyn produced a daughter – future Queen Elizabeth
• Henry sought other women
• Falsely accused Anne of infidelity
• Henry married Jane Seymour
• She gave him a son, Edward VI
• Jane died shortly after childbirth
• Wife #4: Anne of Cleves, a political marriage to a German princess
• Ended in divorce
• Wife #5: Catherine Howard
• Convicted of misconduct & executed, 1542
• Wife #6: Catherine Parr outlived Henry
• Henry died 1547
• Legacy: undisputed supremacy of king
• Church of England under control of king
• Succeeded by his son

Edward VI, 1547-1553

• Child king
• Protestant regents control government
• Made England truly Protestant
• Edward died at age 16
• Protestants attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on throne
• Ruled 9 days
• Later executed
• Edward’s elder sister Mary became queen

Queen Mary I, 1553-1558

• Daughter of Catherine of Aragon
• Devout Roman Catholic
• Married to King Philip II of Spain
• Forced England to return to Roman Catholic religion
• Persecuted Protestants
• Burned 300 at the stake
• Many Protestants went to exile in Europe
• Exposed to leading Protestant Reformers like John Calvin in Geneva
• Mary joined Spain in war with France

Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603

• Daughter of Anne Boleyn
• Moderate Protestant: restored church of England
• Policy of religious toleration to all who were loyal to England

Beginnings of Puritanism

• Puritans wanted to “purify” Church of England (of its Roman Catholic beliefs & practices)
• Puritanism began among Marian exiles who studied under Calvin in Geneva
• They will be an increasingly important force in English history
• 3 main religions: Anglicans, Puritans, & Catholics

Elizabeth’s goal was increased power & prestige of England

Elizabeth I never married – said she was “married to England”

Elizabeth was very popular with her subjects

Elizabeth’s Foreign Policy

• Outwardly promoted peace
• Secretly encouraged “Sea Dogs” like Sir Francis Drake to plunder Spanish shipping
• Supported Dutch rebellion against Spain
• Spanish decided to get rid of English (and Protestant) menace

Sir Francis Drake

• Great English pirate
• Plundered Spanish colonies & ships
• Greatest voyage 1577-1580 – second man in history to sail around the world
• Brought back much Spanish treasure
• Drake raided Spanish port of Cadiz, 1587
• Sank 30 ships & seized many supplies
• Heroic venture remembered as “singeing of the King of Spain’s beard”

King Philip II of Spain

• Planned invasion of England
• Reasons: piracy of Sea Dogs, Protestant faith of England, English support of Dutch rebellion

Spanish Armada, 1588

• Great fleet of Spanish ships
• Philip called it the Invincible Armada
• 130 ships total
• 40 men-of-war
• 8000 sailors
• 50,000 troops: half carried from Spain; half to be transported across Channel from Netherlands
• Queen Elizabeth delivered speech to troops preparing defenses against Spanish invasion
• Spanish Armada sailed up English Channel for one week
• English sent fire ships into Spanish fleet
• Smaller, faster English ships attacked scattered Spanish fleet
• Battle is turning point in world history
• Seadogs, English navy, & fire ships attack & scatter Armada
• Armada sailed north to return home
• “Protestant Wind” wrecked more of Armada along Scottish & Irish coasts
• War continued for many more years
• England began to replace Spain as world sea power
• Atlantic Ocean now safe for English colonization of New World
• English colony at Roanoke, Virginia

The Elizabethan Era

• Late period of Elizabeth’s reign a golden age of literature
• Beginnings of Modern English
• But economy got bad, Irish rebelled, & Earl of Essex led a rebellion in 1601 (he was soon captured & executed)

William Shakespeare, 1564-1616

• Greatest of all English writers
• Shaped the modern English language
• Source of many idioms & expressions
• Globe Theater in London: Shakespeare plays were important part of Elizabethan culture

Lecture 9: STUART MONARCHY: 1603-1714 & English Civil War

Queen Elizabeth I, 1558-1603

• Elizabeth I died 1603 without heirs
• End of House of Tudor
• Cousin James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England
• Beginning of House of Stuart , 1603-1714

King James I, 1603-1625

• King James VI of Scotland at age 1, 1566
• Roman Catholic mother Mary, Queen of Scots, forced to give up throne; later executed
• Believer in Divine right of kings – belief that kings get right to rule from God & not from the people
• Headed strong royal government in Scotland
• English parliament opposed James’ attempt to rule as absolute monarch
• Supported Church of England (Anglican)

Growth of Puritanism

• Puritans: purify the Church of England of its Roman Catholic beliefs & practices
• 3 major religious groups in England: Anglicans, Puritans, Roman Catholics
• Many Puritans in Parliament
• Puritans distrust James
• James hates Puritans

Authorized Version of Bible (King James Version), 1611

• James approved new English translation of Bible
• Main reason: to remove Puritan influences
• Example: Bible footnotes say Christians may overthrow evil king
• Bible helped standardize Modern English

Catholic Challenge to James

• Roman Catholic conspiracy: Gunpowder Plot, 1605
• Attempt to blow up Parliament when James addressed it
• Too many plotters to keep secret
• Leader Guy Fawkes arrested
• Englishmen celebrated execution of Fawkes
• Guy Fawkes Day still celebrated in England with bonfires burning Fawkes in effigy

Religious Intolerance

• James opposed both Catholics & Puritans
• Authorized translation of Bible (1611) to get rid of Puritan influence
• Tried to make Puritans conform to Anglican practices
• Wanted all Englishmen to have same religious beliefs & practices
• Puritans began to leave England
• Separatists (Puritans who wanted to leave Church of England) sailed to America on Mayflower
• Established Plymouth Plantation colony in America, 1620
• Non-separating Puritans established Massachusetts Bay Colony (Boston), 1629

King Charles I, 1625-1649

• Son of James I
• Like father, believed in Divine right of kings
• Opposed Puritans
• Dissolved Parliament  3 times in next 4 years
• “Eleven Years Tyranny”-no Parliament 1629-40
• Tried to force Anglican prayer book upon Scottish Presbyterians
• Scots rebelled
• Charles called new Parliament to get money for Scottish war
• Long Parliament: met from 1640-1653
• King tried to seize leaders
• Civil war broke out 1642

English Civil Wars 1642-1649

• King Charles I vs. Parliament
• King supported by nobility, gentry, & Anglican clergy
• Supporters called Cavaliers
• Parliament supported by Puritans & merchants
• Called Roundheads because of short hair
• Parliament divided; almost defeated at first

Oliver Cromwell: Great Puritan General

• Brilliant commander of “Ironsides” – never lost a major battle
• Took over New Model Army & reorganized it
• Disciplined, fearless, sang Psalms in battle
• King Charles captured and tried by Parliament
• Cromwell led king’s trial & death sentence
• King Charles I beheaded 1649
• Supporters saw king as a martyr
• Regicide infuriated Roman Catholics & other European states
• After execution of Charles I, England became Republic called Commonwealth of England
• Cromwell crushed uprisings in Scotland & Ireland
• Defeated army loyal to son of late king
• But Parliament failed to adopt major reforms
• Cromwell dismissed Parliament & ended Commonwealth, 1653
• England became Protectorate; Cromwell made Lord Protector
• Cromwell offered crown and refused it
• Ruled England as a dictator
• Cromwell’s guiding principle: “liberty of conscience”
• Cromwell raised prestige of England
• But Cromwell was hated by many (and still is)
• Oliver Cromwell died 1658
• Richard Cromwell, son & successor, was weak & ineffective
• Forced to resign 1659

The Restoration 1660
King Charles II, 1660-1685

• Parliament invited Charles Stuart (son of late king) to return as King Charles II
• Charles called the “merry monarch” for his lifestyle & his mistresses
• King owed position to Parliament
• Sought moderation & compromise
• Married to Roman Catholic queen
• Fought 2 naval wars (commercial wars) with Dutch
• 2^nd Anglo-Dutch War led to capture of New Netherland (renamed New York)
• Great Plague struck England, killing 68,000 in London alone
• Great Fire destroyed London, leading to rebuilding under Sir Christopher Wren

Beginning of political parties

• Second half of reign of Charles II saw beginnings of English political parties
• Court party supported Anglican Church & king
• Country party opposed the government
• Parties evolved into Whig Party & Tory Party
• Parliament & King’s Ministers gradually gained power at expense of King

King James II, 1685-1688

• Brother of Charles II
• Roman Catholic
• Accepted as king because he was old and his Protestant daughter was next in line for throne
• Promoted pro-Catholic policies which alienated many Englishmen

Glorious Revolution or “Bloodless Revolution” 1688

• Unexpected birth of son changed things
• People feared new Roman Catholic dynasty
• Leading politicians invited James’ daughter Mary and son-in-law William to invade England with their army from Netherlands
• Almost no one supported King James II
• King fled to France

William III and Mary II, 1688-1702

• Protestant
• Reigned as joint sovereigns
• Constitutional Monarchy
• Reign established right of Parliament to control succession to throne & to limit power of king (or queen)
• Parliament banned Roman Catholics from throne
• Made it illegal for king to suspend laws, keep an army in peacetime, or levy taxes without Parliament’s consent
• William led England in war against France

Queen Anne, 1702-1714

• Protestant daughter of King James II
• Sister of Queen Mary II
• 17 children, but none survived for long
• 1707 Act of Union created United Kingdom of England and Scotland
• Led England in new war against France (War of Spanish Succession)
• Died in 1714 without heirs
• House of Hanover in Germany succeeded House of Stuart

War of Spanish Succession

• Peace of Utrecht 1713 led to beginning of First British Empire
• Britain gained parts of Canada, West Indies, Gibraltar, & trade concessions
• Assessment of American Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (architect of American sea power & empire): “Before that war England was one of the sea powers. After it, she was the sea power, without any second.”

Trends and accomplishments of 111-year Stuart Monarchy

• Prosperity of England increased threefold
• Crowns of England & Scotland united
• Beginnings of British overseas Empire
• King’s absolute powers greatly reduced
• Birth of political parties
• Beginnings of modern cabinet (but without a Prime Minister yet)
• House of Commons pre-eminent in State
• Great growth & influence of Puritanism
• Birth of experimental method in science
• Great advance of science under Isaac Newton (astronomy, physics, mathematics & calculus)
• Birth of Royal Society
• John Locke author of new philosophy of Empiricism: All knowledge comes from experience
• Political philosophy of Locke promoted spirit of toleration & rationalism – great influence upon American government

Lecture 10: Great Britain in the 18^th century

King George I, 1714-1727
House of Hanover

• Second cousin of Queen Anne – her closest Protestant relative
• German Prince, House of Hanover
• Barely spoke English
• Rarely involved in government
• Main interests: food, horses, & women

Sir Robert Walpole, 1676-1745

• Leader of Whigs – party which supported Hanoverian succession
• Chief minister; took control of council
• Considered Britain’s first Prime Minister

Constitutional Monarchy

• Britain only constitutional monarchy in world at this time
• Main principles:
• King could not be a Roman Catholic
• King could not suspend laws
• King depended on Parliament for money & army
• King’s ministers answer to Parliament
• Power with Parliament, not with King

King George II, 1727-1760

• Succeeded father George I
• Put down last attempt of Stuarts to regain throne, 1745
• Seven Years’ War laid foundation of empire in India & Canada
• Growing commercial prosperity & increase in political stability

Industrial Revolution

• C. 1750-1850
• Made Britain into world superpower
• Began with spinning and weaving machines
• James Watt, steam engine, 1760s, freed factories from locating near rivers & waterfalls
• Cotton gin, 1790s, provided cheap cotton for industrial machines

James Watt, 1736-1819

• Scottish engineer
• Improved design which made steam power practical
• Led to growth of modern industry
• Steam engines no longer used only to pump water from mines
• Engines used to power factories which could now be located anywhere
• Cotton gin made cotton cheap & fed British textile industry
• Factory system replaced piecework system where people worked in home
• Factories led to growth of cities and urban social problems
• Machines replaced workers: Luddites responded by smashing looms

John Wesley, 1703-1791

• Leader of Evangelical Revival in England
• Emotional & anti-intellectual
• Appealed to working class
• Emphasized personal faith & good works
• Opposed by many Anglicans
• Founded Methodist societies – separated from Anglicans 1780s
• John Wesley traveled over 400,000 km to preach over 40,000 sermons

George Whitefield, 1714-1770

• Anglican preacher & evangelist
• Friend of Wesley -contributed to growth of Methodism
• Visited American colonies 7 times & led Great Awakening, 1740s
• Whitefield preached outdoors when ministers refused to let him preach in their churches

Evangelical Revival

• Before revival, Church of England was formal, boring, & insensitive to needs of poor
• Methodists reached out to working class
• Made faith personal & practical
• Inspired religious enthusiasm in millions
• Some historians say Evangelical Revival prevented violent revolution & reign of terror as happened in Roman Catholic France in 1790s

William Pitt the Elder, 1708-1778

• Opponent of Walpole & later Prime Minister
• Architect of British Empire
• Two aims: supremacy at sea & capture of French trading posts

British Empire

• 1756-1763: Seven Years’ War against France
• 1759: British capture Quebec, Canada
• 1760: British capture Montreal
• British victories in India
• Attack on Manila led to British control of tea trade with China
• Peace of Paris, 1763: Britain retained Canada, India – beginnings of great empire
• North America, 1763: war doubled size of British Empire

King George III, 1760-1820

• Succeeded grandfather George II
• Tried & failed to increase royal power
• Suffered from disease which made him appear mad
• Viewed as tyrant by American colonists

British policy toward colonies

• Philosophy of mercantilism: colonies exist to provide cheap raw materials and markets for mother country
• British Navigation Acts regulated trade & led to smuggling
• Seven Years’ War left Britain with large debts
• Britain tried to pay part of costs of war by taxing colonies
• British taxes provoked American colonies to revolution
• Boston Tea Party, 1773, protested British tax on tea
• Battle of Lexington, 1775: war began when British troops tried to confiscate American arms
• American Declaration of Independence, 1776
• Battle of Saratoga, 1777, led to French alliance with Americans
• Battle of Yorktown, 1781: last battle of war

Adam Smith, 1723-1790

• Founder of modern economics
• Wrote The Wealth of Nations, 1776
• Opposed English mercantile theory
• Advocated free trade & economic liberalism
• Government must preserve law & order, enforce justice, defend nation, & provide a few social needs
• “Hands off” policy toward business
• Foundation for modern capitalism & free markets

Thomas Malthus, 1766-1834

• English economist
• 1798: Essay on the Principle of Population
• Influenced Darwin’s ideas on evolution and survival of the fittest
• Population increases faster than food supplies
• Wars & disease will kill off extra population unless people limited number of their children
• Predictions failed to come true
• Improved methods of agriculture provided food for increased population
• Neo-Malthusians in 20^th century revived ideas on population to promote birth control
• Ideas still very controversial

William Pitt the Younger, 1759-1806

• Son of William Pitt the Elder
• Youngest Prime Minister at age 24
• Greatest challenge: French Revolution & rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

French Revolution, 1789-1799

• Economic crisis from Seven Years’ War & War of American Revolution
• Paris mob inspired by democratic ideals, liberty & equality
• Soon degenerated into mob rule & tyranny
• Executed king & queen
• Thousands more executed in Reign of Terror
• 1793: France at war with England & other nations

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1821

• Military genius
• Promoted to general in 1793
• Seized power 1799
• Soon at war with most of Europe
• 1804 crowned himself Emperor of France
• Won many battles
• Controlled most of Europe by 1812
• 1812: forced to retreat from Moscow with great loss

Horatio Nelson

• Destroyed Napoleon’s navy at Trafalgar, 1805
• Gave Britain control of seas & saved England from invasion
• Napoleon’s response: Berlin & Milan Decrees closed Europe to British trade
• British response to Napoleon: blockade of Europe (provoked war with America)

War of 1812: Britain vs. United States

• Main causes: interference with U.S. neutrality & shipping rights & kidnapping of U.S. seamen
• Napoleonic War far more important to Britain
• Final American victory at New Orleans 3 weeks after war ended by treaty
• Led to spirit of American nationalism & pride in having defeated Britain twice (but Americans overlook French aid in Revolution & British preoccupation with Napoleon in 1812)

Troubles in Ireland

• Irish hated English rule & oppression
• 1798: rebellion in Ireland
• British response: Act of Union, 1801
• Ireland joined with Great Britain to form United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
• Ended Irish Parliament & put British Parliament in control of all British Isles
• But Roman Catholics still forbidden to hold office or serve in Parliament until 1829

Retreat from Moscow, 1812: great French disaster & beginning of the end

Arthur Wellesley, 1^st Duke of Wellington

• Britain’s great general of Napoleonic Wars
• Led Peninsular Campaign in Spain
• Led Britain in final victory at Waterloo, 1815
• Wellington beat Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium
• Prussian army arrived at end of day to finish off remainder of Napoleon’s army
• Napoleon spent rest of life in exile on island prison
• Congress of Vienna, 1815: created “Concert of Europe” & began 99 years without a general war

Results of war

• After 20 years of war, Britain emerged as strongest, richest, & most powerful country in world
• But in 1815 Britain seemed on edge of bankruptcy & social revolution
• Starvation drove poor to destroy machines which they viewed as cause of their misery
• Government responded with brutal repression
• Britain in 1815: fear, envy, greed, and little hope for most British people

Lecture 11: Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century

King George IV, 1820-1830

• Regent for father George III, 1811-1820
• Disgraceful private life
• Had no part in reforms of era
• Artistic taste: persuaded government to buy paintings which became National Gallery
• Commissioned many beautiful buildings

King William IV, 1830-1837

• Son of George III who succeeded brother
• Three of England’s greatest reforms passed during his reign
• He & brother brought much discredit to British Monarchy

Queen Victoria, 1837-1901

• Succeeded uncle who died without heirs
• 63-year reign longest in English history
• Britain reached height of power during her reign
• Colonial empire & industrial expansion
• Reign called Victorian Age
• Restored prestige of Monarchy after reigns of two irresponsible kings
• Hard-working queen concerned with welfare of her people – gained their affection & admiration
• Britain became richest nation in world & controlled largest empire in history
• British Empire controlled ¼ of world’s land & people
• Wise & capable monarch
• Accepted change from active rule to symbolic rule
• Probably reason British monarchy has survived while most other monarchies have not
• Married cousin, Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1840
• 4 sons & 5 daughters
• Prince loved & respected by people
• Assisted wife
• Albert died 1861
• Victoria never recovered from her loss – dressed in black for many years
• Example of polite society
• Emphasis on high morality
• Strong family values
• Era of imperialism

Industrial Revolution

• Cotton mills & textile industry
• Coal mines
• Blast furnaces & iron & steel industry
• Railways began in 1830
• Canals
• Roads
• Machine tools: machines which make other machines

Contradictions in Victorian England

• Great wealth
• Harsh labor  & inhuman exploitation
• World supremacy
• Appalling slum conditions & immense human misery
• Ideal of political democracy & universal happiness
• Reality of economic distress & oppression
• But many saw these problems & sought to fix them through peaceful means

Era of Reform

• Dissenters & Roman Catholics granted political equality by stages throughout 19^th century
• Slavery outlawed throughout British Empire, 1833
• Local government overhauled and made more responsible to people
• New police force created to replace military
• Free trade thought led to economic growth
• Brutal prison conditions & harsh punishments for minor crimes corrected in 1820s
• Some 220 offenses punishable by death – many ended
• 1824: Parliament removed laws forbidding workers to form trade unions
• 1833 Factory Act said no child under 9 could work in factory; no child under 18 could work more than 12 hours a day
• Parliamentary reform greatest issue

Reform Bill of 1832

• Lowered property qualifications so most of middle class could vote
• But only 5% of people could vote because working class ignored
• Provided model for later reforms

Chartist Movement: early1800s

• First Nationwide working class movement
• The People’s Charter of 1838 demanded:
• 1. Votes for all males
• 2. Secret ballot
• 3. No property qualifications for members of Parliament
• 4. Salaries for members of Parliament
• 5. Annual elections
• 6. Equal electoral districts
• Movement did not achieve these goals, but all except #5 were later adopted
• But Chartist meetings frequently provoked confrontation & violence

Results of 19^th century reforms

• Beginnings of modern forms of:
• Representative parliamentary government
• Party system
• Cabinet system
• Ministerial political responsibility
• Permanent civil service
• Reforms were devised to reconcile theory of “sovereignty of parliament” with movements demanding “sovereignty of people”

Opium War 1839-1842

• Britain sent Macartney diplomatic mission to China, 1793
• Dismissed as barbarians bearing tribute
• Second mission of Amherst likewise dismissed; British insulted
• Britain wanted Chinese products, especially tea
• China didn’t need British products
• Opium from British India reversed the flow of silver
• Chinese Emperor tried to end opium trade & resulting destruction of millions of lives
• British refused to deliver opium until factory besieged
• British assumed confiscated opium would be back on the market
• Chinese destroyed opium before the eyes of the foreigners

British technological superiority

• Great Britain was the first nation to benefit from the Industrial Revolution
• British Empire was the result of Industrial Revolution
• British victory in China in 1842 was due to Britain’s technological superiority resulting from the Industrial Revolution
• Second Opium War fought in part over insult to British flag

Crimean War, 1853-1856, fought to prevent Russian expansion in Black Sea

Britain, France, Ottoman Empire, & Sardinia fought Russia

Crimean War result of religious, commercial, & strategic rivalries

Florence Nightingale

• Born into wealthy family
• Studied medicine to help the sick & needy
• Took over nursing care in Crimea
• Cleaned up filthy conditions & saved countless lives
• Founder of modern nursing profession

Charles Darwin, 1809-1882

• British naturalist who developed theory of evolution based on natural selection
• Theory sometimes called survival of the fittest
• Learned theory from grandfather Erasmus Darwin
• The Origin of Species, published 1859, shocked people who believed God created the world
• Major controversy in religion & science
• Survival of fittest applied to human endeavors
• Led to theories of racial superiority – some races more highly evolved than others
• Used to justify imperialism & colonialism
• Used in 20^th century as justification for genocide (by Hitler, for example)

Colonialism

• Colonies seen as proof of national greatness
• Source of raw materials
• Market for manufactured goods
• Africa chief attraction
• Also interest in Far East & Pacific islands as naval outposts
• Africa became focus for European imperialism
• All African nations except Liberia & Abyssinia dominated by a European power
• Britain controlled East Africa from Capetown to Cairo

William Gladstone, 1809-1898

• Served 4 terms as Prime Minister & leader of Liberal Party
• Lowered income taxes & import duties
• Fought to end abuses in Ireland
• Preferred conciliation to war
• 1884 Reform Bill brought GB closer to universal manhood suffrage

Benjamin Disraeli, 1804-1881

• First person of Jewish ancestry to serve as British Prime Minister
• Conservative leader
• Aggressive foreign policy
• Purchased Suez Canal as link to empire in India
• Worked to improve working & living conditions

Boer War, 1899-1902: British imperialists arrive after discovery of gold

• Nearly all other nations condemned British war against Boer farmers
• Only United States supported Britain
• Many British also opposed war
• Forced British to reconsider policy of “splendid isolation” and consider world public opinion
• British alliance with Japan was one result
• British formed entente with France shortly afterward

Britain in the 19^th Century

• Prolonged industrial revolution
• Producer of cheap manufactured goods
• Moderate & gradual political reforms
• Model of constitutional government
• Controlled largest world empire in history

Britain’s accomplishments in the 19^th century

• Abolished or diminished evils of:
• Slavery
• Ruthless exploitation of workers
• Poverty & destitution
• Disease & epidemics
• Bigotry & ignorance

Britain’s liabilities in the 19^th century

• Continued squalor of mining & industrial cities
• Rural poverty
• Menace of mass unemployment
• Fear of economic crisis
• Threat of modern, scientific war

End of Victorian Era

• 1815-1914: 99 years with no general European war
• People optimistically believed they were in new era of peace
• Britain had solved peacefully problems which had led to violence, revolution, & war in other countries
• European nations formed rival alliances
• Competition for resources and colonies created tension
• Events moved European nations to brink of war

Lecture 12: Great Britain in the 20^th century

King Edward VII, 1901-1910, House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

• Represented his mother in public during her widowhood
• Patron of arts & sciences & sportsman
• Great interest in foreign affairs – visits brought great goodwill to India, Ireland, & Russia

King George V, 1910-1936, House of Windsor

• Naval vice admiral 1903
• Courageous leadership during WWI made him very popular
• Conscientious attention to his duties
• Devoted much time to strengthening ties with vast empire
• 1917 adopted House & Family name of Windsor

British Advances in Science

• Nuclear physics: J.J. Thomson revealed structure of the atom
• Ernest Rutherford’s research into radio-activity revolutionized understanding of matter
• Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge laid foundation of modern nuclear physics

World War I, 1914-1918: political & economic rivalry

Central Powers

• Germany
• Austria-Hungary
• Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

Allied Powers

• Britain
• France
• Italy
• Russia (until 1917)
• United States (beginning 1917)
• Japan
• China & others

• British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey, August, 1914, when Britain declared war on Germany:
• “The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Costs of the Great War

• 1915: 300,000 British casualties in France
• July 1, 1916, beginning of Somme Offensive cost Britain 60,000 casualties (20,000 killed)
• Offensive lasted five months
• 400,000 British, 200,000 French, and 500,000 German casualties
• Passchendaele, 1917: British gained 8 km at cost of 400,000 men
• Before 1917 one French soldier was killed on average every minute
• Total dead from British Empire: almost 1 million (744,000 from United Kingdom)
• Total wounded: nearly 3 million
• Total shipping sunk: 6 million tons & loss of 40% of merchant fleet
• Taxes, loans, indebtedness to U.S., etc.
• Debased moral standards: poison gas & hate propaganda – victory at all costs

Battle of Jutland, 1916

• Largest battleship battle in history
• Minor German tactical success
• Major British strategic victory
• Germany changed strategy
• Turned to unrestricted submarine warfare

Lusitania: sinking by German U-boat angered neutral U.S.

Over 1000 passengers died; over 100 were Americans

But the British used the ship to smuggle weapons

America began to favor Allies after sinking of Lusitania

American army turned tide of battle

Treaty of Versailles ended war

May 4, 1919: Versailles Treaty Announced in China

• Shandong Peninsula to Japan because of secret treaty
• May 4 Movement began in China
• Birth of CPC
• Disillusionment with Western Democracies

Versailles Treaty

• Established League of Nations
• Gave Britain control over German colonies in Africa & Ottoman possessions in Middle East
• Forced Germany to accept all guilt for war
• Forced Germany to pay huge reparations
• Led to great disillusionment with treaty & results of war
• Laid foundation for rise of Adolf Hitler
• Failure of Versailles directly led to World War II

Results of war

• Massive loss of life: nearly 750,000 British soldiers & sailors died
• End of 4 European monarchies & ruling families
• Destruction of 4 empires:

• • Germany
  • Austria-Hungary
  • Ottoman Turkey
  • Russia

• Two of Britain’s best customers before war – Germany & Russia – could no longer afford British products
• U.S. & Japan took away much of Britain’s export business
• Economic depression follows

Irish Question

• 1919: Irish leaders declared Ireland independent
• Bloodshed followed
• 1921: southern Ireland becomes British dominion, the Irish Free State – independent but officially loyal to British crown
• Total independence by 1937
• Protestant Northern Ireland remained part of United Kingdom

New (mostly American) Technology changes the World

• Internal combustion engine made possible motor cars & airplanes
• Motion picture industry
• Radio
• New industries transform the culture

Roaring 20’s: social rebellion, escapism, & cult of self-indulgence

Rise of Labour Party

• New socialist party rose as alternative to Liberal & Conservative Parties
• Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, elected 1920s
• Depression created coalition of all 3 parties to deal with emergency
• Government raised taxes, abandoned free trade, & cut its own spending
• But it had little impact on ending Depression

King Edward VIII, 1936

• Oldest son of George V
• Widely travelled
• Great concern for underprivileged & working class
• Gave up throne to marry American divorcee
• Spent rest of life as Duke of Windsor

King George VI, 1936-1952

• Became king after brother abdicated
• Popular king with modest personality
• Shared dangers & hardships with people during WWII
• Empire began to die out during his reign
• Beginnings of socialism & welfare state

Adolf Hitler, 1889-1945

• Austrian art student who served heroically in World War I
• Hated Jews and Treaty of Versailles
• Founded NSDAP or Nazi Party
• Wrote Mein Kampf while in prison for treason
• Brutal German dictator

Benito Mussolini, 1883-1945

• Founder Fascist Party
• Ruled Italy 21 years
• Took title Il Duce (The Leader)
• Inspiration to Adolf Hitler

Tojo Hideki, 1884-1948

• Japanese Army general who helped provoke Manchurian Incident of 1931
• Encouraged assassination of Japanese civilian leaders
• Promoted war with U.S.
• Led Japan during WWII
• Hanged in 1948

Munich Conference: policy of appeasement encouraged Hitler

Hitler took Sudetenland, all of Czechoslovakia, then attacked Poland

British Army failed to prevent fall of France

Blitzkrieg (“Lightning War”) conquered most of Europe

Hitler planned to invade Britain

Germans bombed London for months while RAF rebuilt

Winston Churchill, 1874-1965

• Prime Minister, 1940-1945 & 1951-1955
• “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.”
• Defied Nazis and gave courage to British people

Atlantic Conference: Germany first target; then Japan

Rommel in Africa beaten by British & American armies

Hitler’s attack on Russia major German blunder

Germans won quick victories at first

Germans began policy of genocide in Russia

Dresden: Bombing campaign targeted German cities

U.S. led invasion of Normandy, D-Day, June 6, 1944

German General Jodl signs surrender, May, 1945

Yalta Conference: Russia agreed to enter war against Japan

Atomic bombing of Hiroshima led to Japanese surrender

Nagasaki was destroyed 3 days later

The Holocaust: German genocide against Jews

Results of World War II

• End of British Empire
• End of colonialism around the world
• Labour government came to power in landslide victory
• Created Welfare State & Socialism
• Labour policies led to “British Disease”
• Labour policies ended by reforms of Margaret Thatcher, 1980s

The Welfare State

• Social security system expanded to care for people “from the cradle to the grave”
• Nationalized many industries: put private industry under state control
• Nationalized industries: Bank of England, coal mines, iron & steel industry, railways & trucking, airlines & aircraft manufacturers, & automobile industry
• Welfare State brought steep rise in crime
• Conditions failed to improve until socialism ended in 1980s

Sir Winston Churchill warned of growing Communist danger

• Beginning of Cold War
• “A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory…. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.”

Queen Elizabeth II, 1952-

• Became heir apparent at age 10 when father became King George VI
• Married Prince Philip of Greece
• Son Charles, born 1948, is still Prince of Wales
• End of British Empire during her reign
• Rise and fall of Labour Party socialism & welfare state
• But queen largely a ceremonial figure with no real political power

Margaret Thatcher, 1979-1991

• Conservative leader
• First woman Prime Minister, 1979-1991
• Held office longer than any other PM of 20^th century
• Replaced socialism & welfare state with market economy & privatization

Tony Blair & Gordon Brown

Britain Today

• Barriers between social classes greatly reduced
• Leaders no longer drawn from nobility
• Every P.M. since 1964 middle or lower class origin
• Protestant-Catholic conflict in Northern Ireland serious until recent years
• 1982 war with Argentina over Falkland Islands
• Scotland & Wales given own parliaments in 1997
• Once the world’s richest & most powerful nation with the largest empire in history
• No longer a world superpower
• Remains an important political & economic power & a leader in the European Union
• But changes within are transforming Britain into an entirely new nation